Across Europe, people are having fewer children. Fertility rates have been low or declining for decades, and countries in Central and Eastern Europe top the list of the world’s fastest-shrinking populations. There are fears that this demographic downtrend could harm countries’ economies, pension and social support systems, services and infrastructure, and even national security. 

This has triggered anxieties and debates at the highest levels about the causes and solutions. Women are often the focus of these conversations, with “baby bonus” cash rewards and other incentives put forward as ways to encourage higher birth rates. However, evidence shows that monetary handouts alone have limited benefits. More importantly, this approach overlooks a crucial factor: most men and women still want to have children – but the high cost of living, sexist norms, and future uncertainty pose major barriers to parenthood for millions.

According to UNFPA’s latest State of the World Population report, nearly 1 in 4 people worldwide felt unable to fulfil their desire for a child at their preferred time. Separate research conducted across European countries found that, on average, people say they want two or more children, but end up deciding on having fewer.

So the question is not just Why are people not having more children – but What is stopping them?

Here are five barriers that may affect how many children men and women decide to have:

1. Economic insecurity

The cost of having a child is one of the biggest barriers potential parents face. According to the UNFPA State of the World Population report, more than half of the respondents worldwide said that economic barriers had affected, or would affect, their ability to achieve their ideal family size. While monetary transfers may offer temporary relief, they do not address the broader issues that affect a family’s long-term prosperity, such as stable employment opportunities and access to affordable healthcare, housing, childcare and education. 

Pushing for higher fertility without also improving the surrounding environment can also worsen a country’s economic and social situation. For example, increasing fertility where there is already high youth unemployment might add pressure on the job market and lead to more outmigration among skilled youth. 

Furthermore, cash programmes come with indirect costs. Studies have shown that, without policies to support a work-life balance, women tend to leave the workforce after having a child. That creates a less talented and less productive labour pool, as well as lower tax revenues and higher numbers of families dependent on social welfare. 

2. Gender inequality

Women continue to shoulder the majority of unpaid care duties at home. In Europe and Central Asia, women spend on average 2.5 times more time on unpaid care work than men. This so-called “double burden” often forces women to choose between pursuing their career and family goals, making it a silent driver of underachieved fertility goals.

Countries with higher than average fertility rates in Europe, such as Sweden or the Netherlands, have achieved these results not by promoting more births but by investing in gender-responsive family policies, including high-quality and affordable child care, flexible work arrangements, and paid leave for both parents. These measures encourage women and men to share household tasks more equally and make them more confident about taking on family responsibilities without sacrificing their ambitions at work.

3. Infertility

Around 1 in 6 adults worldwide experience infertility. The UNFPA State of the World Population report found a slightly higher prevalence in the countries it surveyed: 1 in 5 (21 per cent), with almost 40 per cent responding that they did not end up succeeding in having a child. Even couples who have given birth once before may struggle to conceive again, which is known as “secondary infertility”. Rates in Eastern Europe and Central Asia are almost twice as high as those in high-income countries.

Alternative treatments have emerged, like in vitro fertilization (IVF). However, in most countries, these procedures are not covered by government health plans, limiting access for lower-income families or leading to extremely high personal expenses. Some governments have also imposed restrictions on who can access these services to exclude unmarried individuals and non-heterosexual couples. Supporting families in all their diversity and securing equal access to reproductive health for all are essential to ensuring a population’s full potential.

4. Partnership issues

Having a stable relationship tends to increase people’s desire for children. On the other hand, the lack of a suitable partner can hold back a person’s fertility goals. As women’s levels of education and economic independence have increased, their criteria for potential partners have shifted – with partners valued not only by their status as breadwinners but also their willingness to share responsibilities and play equal supporting roles at home. 

More than 10 per cent of respondents in the UNFPA survey said that a partner’s insufficient involvement in housework or childcare would lead them to have fewer children than desired.  Women were nearly twice as likely as men to cite this as a barrier, showing that partnership formation and fertility intentions suffer when advances in gender equality stall.

5. Future anxieties

People are increasingly wary of bringing children into an uncertain future, where they will face the climate crisis, environmental degradation, wars and pandemics. In the UNFPA report, nearly 1 in 5 respondents said that fears about the future would lead or had already led them to having fewer children than desired. 

Policies must respond especially to the needs of young people, whose concerns about the future will be reflected in the choices they make about raising families. People who feel hopeful about a green, peaceful and healthy future are more likely to pursue the lives they want for themselves and their families.